Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a fatal disease with a 5-year survival rate of less than 6% (Siegel et al. (2014) CA Cancer J. Clin. 64(1): 9-29). Currently, the major treatment regimens for chemotherapy include either a single reagent, gemcitabine (GEM), or a four-drug regimen). While FOLFIRINOX has a better response rate than GEM (31.6% versus 9.4%), with improved survival (11 months versus 6.8 months), the former combination is significantly more toxic and restricted to a minority of PDAC patients with good performance status (Conroy et al. (2011) N. Engl. J. Med. 364(19): 1817-1825). Irinotecan contributes significantly to this toxicity, including a severe impact on the bone marrow (e.g. neutropenia), liver (e.g. necrosis and steatosis) and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (e.g. vomiting, diarrhea) (Conroy et al. (2011) N. Engl. J. Med. 364(19): 1817-1825; Ueno et al. (2007) Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 59(4): 447-454; Loupakis et al. (2013) Br. J. Cancer, 108(12): 2549-2556). Thus, there is a great demand for a treatment regimen that improves irinotecan toxicity, with a view to improving the available drugs for first-line therapy in PDAC.
One approach to reducing irinotecan toxicity, with maintenance of efficacy, is high-dose drug encapsulation in a nanocarrier with protected delivery to the cancer site while reducing systemic drug release. Different carrier types, including polymeric particles and liposomes, have been employed with some success for irinotecan delivery (Chou et al. (2003) J. Biosci. Bioeng., 95(4): 405-408; Onishi et al. (2003) Biol. Pharmaceut. Bull. 26(1): 116-119; Messerer et al. (2004) Clin. Cancer Res, 10(19): 6638-6649; Drummond et al. (2006) Cancer Res., 66(6): 3271-3277; Valencia et al. (2013) Nanomed. 8(5): 687-698; Sadzuka et al. (1998) Cancer Lett., 127(1): 99-106; Ramsay et al. (2008) Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 68(3): 607-617; Li et al. (2015) Adv. Func. Mat. 25(5): 788-798). However, while polymeric nanoparticles showed promising in vitro results, the limited capacity to load irinotecan (<1%, w/w) plus premature drug release (e.g., 40% in 5 hours), the nanoparticles did not achieve the required toxicity reduction while improving intratumoral drug delivery (Valencia et al. (2013) Nanomed. 8(5): 687-698). While liposomes could achieve high irinotecan loading capacity through the use of ammonium sulfate or proton entrapment agents (Chou et al. (2003) J. Biosci. Bioeng., 95(4): 405-408; Messerer et al. (2004) Clin. Cancer Res, 10(19): 6638-6649; Drummond et al. (2006) Cancer Res., 66(6): 3271-3277; Sadzuka et al. (1998) Cancer Lett., 127(1): 99-106; Ramsay et al. (2008) Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 68(3): 607-617), carrier instability under shear and osmotic stress, as well as bilayer disruption by serum proteins, resulted in premature drug release and toxicity (Liu et al. (2000) In: Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 172(1-3): 57-67; Heurtault et al. (2003) Biomaterials, 24(23): 4283-4300; Sabin et al. (2006) Eur. Phys. J. E. 20(4): 401-408).
As noted above, many attempts to deliver cancer drugs in clinical trials or in a therapeutic setting have been based on liposomal (Messerer et al. (2004) Clin. Cancer Res, 10(19): 6638-6649; Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 3271) or polymer-based systems (Onishi et al. (2003) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 26(1): 116-119). Most of these carriers are spherical particles or supramolecular assemblies in the size range of 80-200 nm, often containing PEG coating on the surface to prolong circulatory half-life, and typically exhibiting loading capacities from ˜5 w/w % (e.g., polymer-based nanoparticles) to ˜50 w/w % (e.g., liposomal carrier). At a pre-clinical level, the potential benefits of these nanocarriers in animal studies, including murine PDAC models, have been shown to include a reduction in in vivo toxicity, enhanced antitumor efficacy, and improved survival rate.
However, only a small number of nanocarriers have advanced to clinical trials for PDAC patients. Nanocarriers including an ionophore (A23187, also known as calimycin) enabled irinotecan delivery liposomal formulation (Irinophore C) and a protonating agent irinotecan delivering liposomal formulation (MM-398) (Baker et al. (2008) Clin. Cancer Res. 14: 7260-7271; Drummond et al. (2006) Cancer Res. 15(66): 3271-3277). The Irinophore C formulation (Champions Biotechnology) is a liposomal carrier that makes use of active irinotecan loading through the generation of transmembrane proton gradients, using the ionophore, A23187, or ammonium sulfate (Ramsay et al. (2008) Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 68: 607-617). The Irinophore C formulation was used in a clinical study that commenced in 2011, but there have been no updated information about the outcome of the study or the results.
While in a recent phase 3 clinical trial, the development of a liposomal carrier (MM-398) for irinotecan by Merrimack showed an improved survival benefit in PDAC as a 2nd-line treatment option, the relatively high rate of GI tract and bone marrow toxicity has resulted in a black box warning for severe and life-threatening diarrhea and neutropenia (Von Hoff et al. (2013) Br. J. Cancer, 109(4): 920-925; www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm468654.htm). Human subjects participating in MM-398 clinical trials also showed significant elevations of liver enzymes, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (see, e.g., www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2015/207793LB.pdf). Nonetheless, MM-398 received FDA approval for use in PDAC for patients failing to respond to GEM therapy, and is marketed as Onivyde® (see, e.g., www.fda.gov/newsevents/newsroom/pressannouncements/ucm468654.htm).
The MM-398 liposomal formulation (Merrimack Pharmaceuticals) incorporates irinotecan hydrochloride with the assistance of a polyanionic trapping agent (ESMO G12014, www.merrimackpharma.com). More specifically, irinotecan loading into the MM-398 liposome was achieved by intra-liposomal drug encapsulation of a multivalent anionic trapping agent, triethylammonium sucrose octasulfate (TEA8SOS). This chemical leads to irinotecan protonation and entrapment at more than 10 times the loading that can be achieved through passive drug encapsulation (Drummond et al. (2006) Cancer Res. 66(6): 3271-3277). IV administration of MM-398 liposome has been shown to induce complete tumor regression in various PDAC tumor models in mice, including inhibition of metastatic tumor foci (Paz et al. (2102) Cancer Res. 72(12 Suppl): Abstract A63). MM-398 is currently in a Phase 3 clinical trial and lays claim to providing improved tumor inhibition, pharmacokinetics and efficacy compared to free irinotecan in animal and human studies (Kalra (2012) AACR meeting, Abstract #5622). This includes experimental data claiming complete PDAC regression using a dose of 20 mg/kg MM-398 (human equivalent dose 60-120 mg/m2) in murine xenograft studies (Paz et al. (2102) Cancer Res. 72(12 Suppl): Abstract A63). MM-398 also increases the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) of free irinotecan from 80 to 324 mg/kg in mice (Drummond et al. (2006) Cancer Res. 66(6): 3271-3277). Additionally, in the Phase 3 clinical trial by Merrimack Pharmaceuticals (Hoff et al. ESMO GI 2014, www.merrimackpharma.com) involving 417 PDAC patients, the combination of MM-398, 5-FU and leucovorin resulted in an overall survival (OS) of 6.1 months, which is 1.9 months longer than the control arm receiving 5-FU and leucovorin. However, while the active loading of irinotecan into the MM-398 liposomal formulation enhances drug loading capacity over a passive encapsulation procedure, the synthesis technique requires multiple steps and liposomal carriers do not provide the same colloidal stability or the same amount of intracellular release compared to the LB-MSNP platform provided herein. Nonetheless, MM-398 received FDA approval for use in PDAC for patients failing to respond to GEM therapy, and is marketed as ONIVYDE®. The use of polyanionic polymers to increase drug entrapment in liposomes leads to ˜80 nm drug precipitation (Zhu et al. (1996) 39(1): 138-142; Colbern et al. (1998) Clin. Cancer Res. 4(12): 3077-3082), which constitutes one of the reasons for slow irinotecan release from the liposomal carrier compared to LB-MSNP pores.
Thus, there is still an unmet need for nanocarriers and delivery methods that enable efficient drug delivery, including chemotherapy such as irinotecan chemotherapy, with an improved margin of safety and reduced toxicity.